Even though we are experiencing one of the most war-free periods in world history today, when we look back, we see that states have been in a constant state of war and struggle since the day humanity was founded. After the concept of diplomacy began to develop, states from time to time chose to agree rather than fight. Some privileges given during these agreements are called capitulation.
For hundreds of years, some states have been granting capitulation to other states. Of course, a state definitely benefits from these privileges granted as a result of the agreements made. The effects of the concept of capitulation, which we often hear about in our own history, on the Ottoman Empire are extremely important. Let’s take a closer look at what capitulation is and see its examples in the world and its effects on the Ottoman Empire.
Let’s start by making a general definition: What is capitulation?
The Latin word capitulare, which means to make a contract, has passed into western languages in a similar way, and its equivalent in our language is capitulation. Capitulation, which the Italians express as capitulazione, in its most general definition; These are privileges granted by one state to another state as a result of agreements made. Capitulations can be unilateral privileges or mutual privileges.
So, what exactly does capitulation mean?
Capitulation; It can be given in economic, social, administrative or judicial fields. For example, the freedom of worship of people living in a state and belonging to a different religion than the general religion of that state can be considered as a personal privilege. Similarly, judging those people according to their own religion is considered a judicial privilege.
Economic privileges are one of the most common types of capitulation. The granting state may impose special rules for citizens of the other state to do business in its territory. Privileges such as tax reduction or audit freedom form the basis of economic capitulations.
We encounter the first examples of capitulation in the world during the Middle Ages:
In the 12th century, Italian city-states developed and received countless immigrants from outside. Likewise, people living in these city-states were also carrying out commercial activities in other states. The Italian city-states, which were an important power at that time, were making various capitulation agreements with other European states for their own citizens.
One of the most well-known of these capitulation agreements was the one made in 1111 between the Italian city-state Pisa and the Byzantine Empire. Tired of the Norman attacks, the Byzantine emperor of the period, Alexis, asked for help from the Pisa state and signed an agreement in return, giving many capitulations.
The agreement in question included economic privileges centered in Constantinople, the Byzantine capital at the time. In addition, an annual tax was paid to Pisa and silk gifts were given to the archbishop of Pisa. Because the terms of the agreement were extremely harsh, Byzantium was even attacked by Pisa soldiers when it did not pay.
The capitulations in the Ottoman period started much earlier than we think:
Although capitulation may seem like privileges given by a weak state to a strong state, it is actually a type of diplomacy method applied to strengthen bilateral relations. For this reason, the Ottoman Empire made capitulation agreements even when it was a newly established state. It is known that such agreements were made between the Byzantium, the Seljuks, and different Arab states and the Ottoman Empire.
Historically speaking, the Ottoman Empire gave its first capitulation to the Genoese in 1352. This was later followed by privileges given to Venetian and Florentine merchants. There were agreements made with Italian city states in the 15th century. In fact, after Mehmet the Conqueror conquered Istanbul, he even allowed the Genoese who continued to live in Galata to continue the privileges that Byzantium had given them.
With the period of Suleiman the Magnificent, capitulations increased rapidly in the Ottoman Empire:
As the Ottoman Empire transformed into an empire and expanded, it entered into relations with new states and the number of capitulation agreements increased. Suleiman the Magnificent made an agreement with the French in 1535 and gave them the opportunity to trade in Ottoman lands. This agreement provided great convenience to the French, especially in maritime trade.
France, perhaps the state to which we have capitulated the most, even opened a post office in Istanbul in 1740. In the 16th century, some privileges were granted to states such as England, the Netherlands, Austria and Prussia. In the 18th century, capitulations were given to Russians, partly because we had to.
The abolition of the capitulations that plagued us after the 18th century was only possible with the Treaty of Lausanne:
When you, as a strong state, grant capitulation to another state, it is possible to control this, but when the power of the state decreases, it is inevitable that these privileges will be abused. This is exactly what happened to the Ottomans. As the power of the Ottoman Empire decreased after the 18th century, the capitulations given to the western states began to turn against us.
The Ottoman Empire took the first official step towards abolishing the capitulations during the Treaty of Paris negotiations held in 1856. But this was nothing more than a request. The Union and Progress government of the period sent a harsh message to foreign embassies on September 9, 1914, announcing that the capitulations were abolished.
When we lost the First World War and our lands began to be occupied, of course, what we said became meaningless. Fortunately, the Ankara government was established at that time and the reactions became harsher. Finally, when our lands were liberated from occupation, it became possible to abolish hundreds of years of capitulations with the Lausanne Peace Treaty. It is said that Ismet Pasha took a very threatening attitude towards the western states on this issue.
So, what were the effects of the capitulations on the Ottoman Empire?
Of course, the biggest impact on the Ottoman Empire from the capitulations given to Western states based on the power of the state for hundreds of years was in the field of economy. The privileges given were so great that foreign goods were sold at much more affordable prices than domestic goods in the country. Because while local producers were paying many different taxes, foreign traders were trading freely.
Another important impact of the capitulations on the Ottoman Empire appears in the social and political arena. Foreigners could open schools, establish associations and open companies as they wish in the country. It is clear from the attitudes they displayed during the occupation that none of them had good intentions. In other words, due to the capitulations, the Ottoman Empire had already begun to be occupied, although not actually.
We explained this concept through examples by answering frequently asked questions such as what is capitulation, which are privileges that we have encountered in many different areas throughout history, and what are its effects on the Ottoman Empire. Of course, economic agreements will be made between two states, but any agreement that is not controlled will result in losses.
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